IT ethics: Hacking And Copyrights Essay

IT ethics is a new branch of ethics that is growing and changing rapidly as IT technology also grows and develops. The term â€Å"IT ethics† is open to interpretations both broad and narrow. On the one hand, for example, IT ethics might be understood very narrowly as the efforts of professional philosophers to apply traditional ethical theories or virtue ethics to issues regarding the use of IT technology. On the other hand, it is possible to construe IT ethics in a very broad way to include, as well, standards of professional practice, codes of conduct, aspects of IT law, public policy, corporate ethics – even certain topics in the sociology and psychology of computing. In the industrialized nations of the world, the â€Å"information revolution† already has significantly altered many aspects of life – in banking and commerce, work and employment, medical care, national defense, transportation and entertainment. Consequently, information technology has begun to affect community life, family life, human relationships, education, freedom, democracy, and so on. IT ethics in the broadest sense can be understood as that branch of applied ethics, which studies and analyzes such social and ethical impacts of information technology (Bynum). In recent years, this robust new field has led to new university courses, conferences, workshops, professional organizations, curriculum materials, books, articles, journals, and research centers. The introduction of the World Wide Web in 1990 has catalyzed the expansion of the Internet, which is still growing today at unprecedented rates and IT ethics is quickly being transformed into â€Å"global information ethics†. The recent growth of the Internet has resulted not only in an increase in the amount of available knowledge, but also in an increase in the problems inherent to its usage and distribution. It has become clear that traditional rules of conduct are not always applicable to this new medium, so new ethical codes are now being developed. Edward F. Gehringer gives broad and wide-ranged classification of ethical issues in information technology area. He distinguished following main aspects of IT ethics (Gehringer): Basics; Commerce; IT Abuse; Intellectual Property; Privacy; Risks; Social Justice Issues; Although, in practice every case involves at least two of those issues. At first, let us discuss problems of copyrights in present-day IT industry. It seems that this issue deals with almost every aspect listed above and it will be good example of ethics implementation in IT. In article â€Å"Napster, DVD cases raise copyright questions in digital age†, we can observe some problems concerning copyright issues of IT industry. The article discusses this problem on example of Napster, the Internet search engine which allows over 60 millions consumers to find and download free music. â€Å"Experts say the high-tech context in which copyright questions are being raised – as exemplified by the Napster case in California and a DVD-encryption case out of New York – also shows that the law is always a few steps behind technology.† The Recording Industry Association of America filed a lawsuit against Napster in December 2000, accusing the company of encouraging the illegal copying and distribution of copyright music on a massive scale. Author asserts that the case raises fundamental questions about freedom of information and activity on the Internet and what copyright protections musicians have or do not have in cyberspace. â€Å"For th ose and other reasons, legal experts point to the Napster case as crucial to the future of cyberspace and copyright law in the United States, the world’s leader in high-tech issues†, he states. In this article, the writer also describes how copyright law needs revision because it has become so complicated and counterintuitive. He also maintains that many content providers and copyright lawyers tend to propagate â€Å"made-up rules† that purport to clarify ambiguities such as the legality of sharing music on peer-to-peer file sharing networks. Author asserts that copyright rules, however, are in considerable flux these days and very little is clear about these new technologies. According to article, we surely have no obligation to follow made-up rules, although it is sometimes easy to confuse these specious requirements with real ones. Given this confusion, it concludes that the need for copyright reform is urgent. With the dawning of the Internet and other highly advanced technology, people all around the world are now able to copy, download, and distribute copyrighted material with ease. Unfortunately, the use of the Internet has increased the conflict with copyright laws.   In 1998, Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act to address the tricky issue of copyright protections in a digital environment. An important aspect of that law was anti-circumvention protection, which barred people from circumventing password-protected and other secure Web sites that provide access to creative works. The law said the copyright owners could file civil lawsuits against those who break into such secure Web sites. This is the directly applicable law in the DVD case. At its core, copyright law says that the creators of certain literary and artistic works have the right to ensure that unauthorized people do not use their work for unauthorized purposes. The creators hold the copyright. They can gi ve up their exclusive right to publishers or other authorized entities for a limited time or permanently. Legislation and court rulings have held that people have a significant right to make use of exceptions within the copyright law to avoid lawsuits. On the other hand, if the overwhelming majority of actors regulated by the copyright law are ordinary end-users, it makes no sense to insist that each of them retain copyright counsel in order to fit herself within niches created to suit businesses and institutions, nor is it wise to draw the lines where the representatives of today’s current stakeholders insist they would prefer to draw them. Extending the prescriptions and proscriptions of the current copyright law to govern the everyday acts of non-commercial, non-institutional users is a fundamental change. To do so without affecting a drastic shift in the copyright balance will require a comparably fundamental change in the copyright statutory scheme. In a whole, issues in article raised very well, opposing two different views on copyright problem – from creator’s and from consumer’s side. Undoubtedly, both the Napster and DVD cases raise free speech, fair use and copyright issues, which makes them important to future legal and legislative action in the high-tech area. Using those cases writer shows controversial issues and concludes that the need for copyright reform is urgent. On the other hand there is no strong support for reasons in which way legislation concerning copyrights could be established. In my opinion, the eloquence surrounding digital copyright in general, and peer-to-peer file sharing and DVD encryption in particular, heated in article, inspires great confusion about what the copyright law does and does not prohibit. In general, most of the key legal questions are still unsettled, in part because copyright defendants have run out of money and gone out of business before their cases could go to trial. In that vacuum, some copyright owners are claiming that their preferred rules of conduct are well-established legal requirements. There may be an ethical obligation to follow real rules, even when they seem unreasonable. But there is any ethical obligation to follow made-up ones. Indeed, in this context, we may have an ethical obligation to resist them. When considering this new and advanced way of sharing information, with regard to copyright laws, the following factors must be assessed: the legality of the situation, financial losses and gains, and moral issues. Two different views can be inevitably argued over this controversial issue; those who think the downloading of copyrighted material, without the permission of the author is theft, and those who believe file sharing of copyrighted material is their right in the information age.   Although the digital age has made advanced technology available to everyone, the principles of justice and fairness should still prevail. As an IT professional, we have the moral responsibilities to point out when necessary about copyrights. We should be aware that copyrighted material on the Internet is available for free download only if the creators give consent to its publication and distribution. It can be certain that the debate on copyright in the digital age will continue, and that a definitive solution will take a while to reach for each side.   Technology will always be here and will continue to advance, but the industries must be willing to work with the technology to meet the demands of the consumer in the information age. Hacking is also one of the most significant issues nowadays, which involves almost every aspect of IT ethics. Second article I have submitted for hacking ethics topic is â€Å"Under the skin of digital crime† from BBC News. The article discusses issues of â€Å"positive† and â€Å"negative† hacking. It claims that there was a time when hacking was something positive. It was done in the name of intellectual curiosity rather than financial reward. Now hacking has become an activity that holds two positions and is therefore both solemnized for its insightful inventiveness and defamed for its devious acts. Article claims that the ethics behind hacking and the actions taken by hackers constitute a manifesto that transcends ordinary understanding of this activity. Hackers argue that their actions promote a means for tighter security by way of detecting flaws and patches for systems and software. However, these very actions are viewed as violations of the rights to privacy and security for both individuals and organizations. Consequently, this establishes a cautionary attitude toward ethical issues such as, privacy, security and the future of the Internet. Another trend that article raises is the creeping criminality of hacking, much of which is now carried out for explicitly financial reward. Some criminal hackers are threatening to bombard some web-based businesses with gigabytes of data unless large amounts of cash are handed over. It is extortion with a hi-tech gloss. In author’s experience, many of these criminal hackers have full-time jobs in technology. â€Å"Professional hackers are professional in all senses of the word,† he states, â€Å"they work in the industry.† The fundamental doctrine or ethic that hackers use in order to justify their behavior is the idea that hacking offers a mode of investigation, which allows an individual to gain knowledge necessary to infiltrate systems that contain vulnerabilities. Acquiring this knowledge allows one to develop strategies that facilitate exploration of their functions and the inner components of the systems. The â€Å"hacker ethic† states in part that all information belongs to everyone and there should be no boundaries or restraints to prevent disclosure of this information. This philosophy that is upheld by the hacker community introduces ethical questions regarding the freedom of information and the loss of privacy. One more argument supported by the hacker ethic is that break-ins elucidate security problems to those who can do something about them. Hacker intrusions into systems surpass the traditional understanding of violating the laws of trespassing. Hacking involves the exploitation, or the manipulation of a bug, or a backdoor that is inherently present within the system. In this view, hacking is not a threat against the integrity of the system being exploited, but instead is a means of implementing corrections and enforcing tighter security. Although issues in article risen well, the writer did not make a conclusive support argument of the statement that many of criminal hackers have full-time jobs in technology. There is not strong support for causes of criminal actions by hackers. The only reason that they carried out hacking, he argued for explicitly financial reward. Concerning hacking ethics, problem discussed very particularly, and the common statement depicts real situation. Undoubtedly, hackers and hacking problems are real ones, but how might they be solved? Security requires much more than designing a secure technical infrastructure that resembles an impenetrable fortress. The key to a secure network is the development of real time enforceable policies that take advantage of security bulletins and published security holes. â€Å"It is ethically wrong to wait until systems under protection are compromised in order to begin patching up the holes. Securing a network doesn’t begin with high cost software and security firewalls aimed at halting the intruders, but begins with utilizing available knowledge that calls for improvements made by ethical hacking.† (Mikkkeee). Whatever the case, hackers believe that when they compromise a system they are in effect introducing fixes that force the system administrator to take the necessary precautions in patching up the hole, thereby tightening the security of the system. From this position, the hacker is actually doing a service to the system administrator who is unfamiliar with the bugs that can lead to a system compromise. If there is any criminal intent on the part of the hacker, then they should be held legally accountable for violating the security of the system and their actions should be punishable by law. From the point of view of IT professional, we have the moral responsibilities to point out when necessary about hacker activities. Even though hacking undoubtedly has led to productive improvement in IT and software security, it has in effect created many disruptive problems online and offline. Hacking is an activity that introduces a method of analysis that targets and works on various components. Therefore, hacking has the potential to cause harm and to violate legitimate privacy and property rights. By ethical standards hacking does introduce crucial security fixes, but does so at the expense of violating privacy and the security of individuals. Furthermore, hacking activities lead to disruptive and dangerous problems for society, which tend to be difficult to eradicate. But, with awareness of those problems, we also should take into account that hacking is underside of technical progress, and could not be considered apart of it. As The Mentor warns in the conclusion to his manife sto, â€Å"I am a hacker, and this is my manifesto. You may stop this individual, but you can’t stop us all† (Mentor, 1). Even if the authorities catch a hacker, as long as there is a motivation, hacking will persist. On the other hand, IT professionals should clearly recognize boundary between real professionalism and hacking in their own activity, because that line is very transparent. In conclusion, we should note, that significant attention paid to issues erected above in public press. Many publications leave negative impression about hacking and copyrights, as those are lawless anyway. The Napster and DVD cases received the most publicity because it involves highly popular software that millions of people around the world use to share music and films. Concerning hacking issue, media tend to use the word â€Å"hacker† as a synonym for cyber vandal, digital criminal and basically any person who uses digital means to perform criminal or malicious activities. Nevertheless, it would be better to consider not only consequences, but causes as well. For the first look hacking and copyrights are on the contrary sides of ethics, but when we examine details, there are much more common between them. These problems are permanent topics of news nowadays. With penetration of information technology into mass media, which now functioning very closely related with World Wide Web, moreover, when Internet becoming a main media, issues of hacking and intellectual property ethics are affecting mass media itself noticeably. Thus those problems widely covered now in press and will cover on with spreading of information technology. The question is in qualitative impact of subjects on mass media. Bibliography: Bynum, Terrell, IT Ethics: Basic Concepts and Historical Overview. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta(ed.), Gehringer, Edward. â€Å"Ethics in Computing.† Ethical Issues. Homepage. 2001 Chebium, Raju. â€Å"Napster, DVD cases raise copyright questions in digital age.† CNN.com News. August 7, 2000 Ward, Mark. â€Å"Under the skin of digital crime.† BBC News Online. 11 May, 2004 Mikkkeee. â€Å"Hacking: Ethical Issues of the Internet Revolution.† New Order Portal. March 29, 2003 The Mentor, â€Å"The Conscience of a Hacker,† Phrack, Vol One, Issue 7, Phile 3, January 8, 1986. February 10, 2003.

How French Has Influenced Old English

How French Has Influenced  English William the Conqueror won the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and for the next three centuries, all the kings of England spoke French. During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words were adopted into English, some three-fourths of which are still in use today. This French vocabulary is found in every domain, from government and law to art and literature.Robert of Gloucester (Robert Fitzroy, 1st Earl of Gloucester (before 1100 – 31 October 1147) was an illegitimate son of King Henry I of England) wrote in his chronicle: â€Å"Vor bote a man conne frenss me hel? of him lute†, meaning â€Å"Unless a man know French, one counts of him little†, hence French became the language of a superior social class. French dialects influenced English also. Today we have chase, guardian, guarantee and regard from Central French (or Francien), side by side with catch, warden, warrant and reward from Norman French.The present-day vocabulary o f English is approximately half Germanic (English and Scandinavian) and half Romance (French and Latin). The two types are strangely blended. Whereas some titles of nobility prince, peer, duke, duchess, marquis, marchioness, viscount, viscountess and baron are French, the names of the highest rulers, King and Queen, are English. There is still used R. S. V. P. (Repondez s`il vous plait) printed on invitation cards or Messrs (for Messieurs) in everyday correspondence.Parliament, meaning `speaking, conference`, is French, but Speaker, the title of the First Commoner, is English. Town, hall, house and home are English, but city, village, palace, mansion, residence and domicile are French. French, too, are chamber and apartment, whereas room and bower are English; justice, just, judge, jury and juridical are all French, as well as court, assize, prison, bill, act, council, tax, custom, mayor, chattel, money and rent, which all came into the language before the close of the thirteenth ce ntury.The names of the live animals: ox, swine and calf are English, whereas those of the cooked meats beef, pork and veal are French. The superiority of French cooking is demonstrated by culinary terms as: boil, broil, fry, grill, roast, souse and toast. Breakfast is English, but dinner and supper are French. Hunt is English, but chase, quarry, scent and track are French. Names of the older crafts are English: baker, fisherman, miller, saddler, builder, shepherd, shoemaker, wainwright, weaver and webber.Those of more elegant occupations are French: carpenter, draper, joiner, mason and tailor. The names of the commoner parts of the human body are English, but face and voice are French. Generally the English words are stronger, more physical and more human. We feel more at ease after getting a hearty welcome than after being granted a cordial reception. We can compare as well freedom with liberty, friendship with amity, kingship with royalty, holiness with sanctity, happiness with fe licity, depth with profundity, and love with charity.

Abducted by a UFO: prevalence information affects young children’s false memories for an implausible event Essay

SUMMARY This study examined whether prevalence information promotes children’s false memories for an implausible event. Forty-four 7–8 and forty-seven 11–12 year old children heard a true narrative about their ï ¬ rst school day and a false narrative about either an implausible event (abducted by a UFO) or a plausible event (almost choking on a candy). Moreover, half of the children in each condition received prevalence information in the form of a false newspaper article while listening to the narratives. Across two interviews, children were asked to report everything they remembered about the events. In both age groups, plausible and implausible events were equally likely to give rise to false memories. Prevalence information increased the number of false memories in 7–8 year olds, but not in 11–12 year olds at Interview 1. Our ï ¬ ndings demonstrate that young children can easily develop false memories of a highly implausible event. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Both recent studies (e.g. Pezdek & Hodge, 1999; Strange, Sutherland, & Garry, 2006) and legal cases have demonstrated that children can develop memories of events that never happened, so-called false memories (Loftus, 2004). A well-known legal case is the ‘McMartin Preschool’ trial in which several teachers were accused of ritually abusing hundreds of children across a 10-year period (Garven, Wood, & Malpass, 2000; Garven, Wood, Malpass, & Shaw, 1998; Schreiber et al., 2006). Some of the children recalled extremely bizarre, implausible events such as ï ¬â€šying in helicopters to an isolated farm and watching horses being beaten with baseball bats. The charges against the teachers, however, were eventually dropped; videotapes of the investigative interviews indicated that the children were suggestively interrogated and many experts concluded that the children’s memories were almost certainly false. Controversial cases like the McMartin trial have inspired researchers to investigate how children develop false memories of implausible experiences (Pezdek & Hodge, 1999; Strange et al., 2006), yet the precise antecedents of implausible false memories are still ill-understood. The question we ask here is whether prevalence information—that is, details about the frequency of a false event—is a potential determinant of children’s implausible false memories. *Correspondence to: Henry Otgaar, Faculty of Psychology, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands. E-mail: henry.otgaar@psychology.unimaas.nl Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. H. Otgaar et al. What do we know about the role of prevalence information in the development of false memories? Mazzoni, Loftus, and Kirsch (2001) describe a three-step process that explains how false memories are formed. According to this model, three conditions must be satisï ¬ ed to create false memories. First, an event has to be considered plausible. Second, the event has to be evaluated as something that genuinely happened. Finally, images and thoughts about the event have to be mistaken as memory details. Consider, now, just the ï ¬ rst stage of Mazzoni et al.’s model (event plausibility) and how prevalence information might affect perceived plausibility. Recent experiments have shown that prevalence information enhances the perceived plausibility of implausible events (Hart & Schooler, 2006; Mazzoni et al., 2001; Pezdek, Blandon-Gitlin, Hart, & Schooler, 2006; Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Jimenez, 2006). Mazzoni et al. (2001) asked undergraduates to read false newspaper articles describing demonic possession. The articles implied, among other things (i.e. a description of what happens in a typical possession experience), that possessions were more common than people previously thought and after reading the articles participants were more likely to believe they had witnessed a demonic possession in the past. Other studies investigating the role of prevalence information in eliciting false beliefs have produced similar striking effects (Hart & Schooler, 2006; Mazzoni et al., 2001; Pezdek et al., 2006; Scoboria et al., 2006). What we do not know, however, is whether prevalence information inï ¬â€šuences the development of false memories (stage 3 of Mazzoni et al.’s model) and not just false beliefs per se. This is an important issue in the false memory literature because several authors have argued that memories and beliefs, although related, are deï ¬ nitely not the same (Scoboria, Mazzoni, Kirsch, & Relyea, 2004; Smeets, Merckelbach, Horselenberg, & Jelicic, 2005). Moreover, the effect of prevalence information has only ever been tested on adults’ beliefs. To date, no study has examined whether prevalence information affects the generation of children’s false memories. What do we know about event plausibility in the development of children’s false memories? In short, research has produced interesting but varied results. Early studies showed that children were more likely to create false memories of plausible than implausible events (Pezdek & Hodge, 1999; Pezdek, Finger, & Hodge, 1997), and researchers suggested that it may be difï ¬ cult to implant false memories of an implausible event (i.e. receiving a rectal enema). In contrast, one recent study shows that children will falsely recall both plausible and implausible events to a similar extent (Strange et al., 2006). Three different explanations might account for these mixed ï ¬ ndings. First, Strange et al. presented children with a doctored photograph of the false event whereas Pezdek and colleagues used false descriptions. Doctored photographs might be considered an extreme form of evidence -one that is very difï ¬ cult for children to refute. It is probable, then, that the doctored photographs skewed the children’s plausibility judgments which in   turn caused them to develop false memories for the plausible and implausible event at a similar rate. Second, Strange et al. compared false events that were either plausible or implausible whereas Pezdek and colleagues (1997, 1999) contrasted false events that differed in terms of script knowledge (i.e. description of what typically occurs in an event). Speciï ¬ cally, they compared a high script knowledge event (i.e. lost in a shopping mall) with a low script knowledge event (i.e. receiving a rectal enema). However, the exact relation between script knowledge and plausibility is not clear (Scoboria et al., 2004). Third, the two false events used in Strange et al.’s and Pezdek et al.’s studies differed with respect to valence. Strange et al.’s events were positive (i.e. taking a hot air balloon ride and drinking a cup of tea with Prince Charles), whereas Pezdek and colleagues implanted false negative events in Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. children’s memory (i.e. lost in a shopping mall and receiving a rectal enema). Studies have shown that valence affects the development of children’s false memories (Ceci, Loftus, Leichtman, & Bruck, 1994; Howe, 2007). Since plausibility, valence and script knowledge seem to play a role in the development of false memories, the false events used in the current study were matched on these factors. To examine whether prevalence information can lead children to develop full-blown false memories of plausible and implausible events, and to examine developmental differences in the development of false memories, we adapted the false narrative procedure (e.g. Garry & Wade, 2005; Loftus & Pickrell, 1995; Pezdek & Hodge, 1999; Pezdek et al., 1997), and exposed some 7–8 year old children and some 11–12 year old children to one true description and one false description of past experiences. Previous studies have shown that these age groups differ developmentally with respect to suggestibility and false memory formation (e.g. Ceci, Ross, & Toglia, 1987). The true description described the child’s ï ¬ rst day at school. The false description was either plausible and described almost choking on a candy, or implausible and described being abducted by a UFO. Half of the children in each group also received prevalence information in the form of a newspaper article. The article suggested that the target false event was much more common than the children probably thought. Our predictions were straightforward: based on the prevalence literature with adults, we predicted that children who heard false prevalence information would be more likely to report false memories than children without false prevalence information. With respect to the role of event plausibility, two predictions can be formulated. Based on studies by Pezdek and colleagues (1997, 1999), we would predict that regardless of prevalence information, plausible events would elicit more false memories than implausible events. However, based on a recent study by Strange et al. (2006), we would expect that plausible and implausible events are equally likely to elicit false memories. Finally, because younger children are more suggestible than older children (for an overview see Bruck & Ceci, 1999), we expected that younger children would be more likely to develop false memories than older children. METHOD Participants The study involved 91 primary school children (48 girls) from two different age groups (n  ¼ 44, 7–8 year olds, M  ¼ 7.68 years, SD  ¼ 0.52; n  ¼ 47, 11–12 year olds, M  ¼ 11.64 years, SD  ¼ 0.53). Children participated after parents and teachers had given informed consent. All children received a small gift in return for their participation. The study was approved by the standing ethical committee of the Faculty of Psychology, Maastricht University. Materials True narratives True narratives described children’s ï ¬ rst day at school. This event was chosen because it was a unique event that had happened to all children at age 4. Children’s parents were contacted by telephone to obtain the following personal details about each child’s ï ¬ rst school day: the family members or friends who escorted the child to school, and the teacher’s and school’s name. These details were incorporated in the true narratives. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. An example of a true narrative was: Your mother told me that when you were 4 years old, you went for the ï ¬ rst time to the elementary school. The name of the elementary school was Springer and it was located in Maastricht. The name of your teacher was Tom. Your mother took you to school. False narratives False events were selected from a pilot study. In that study, 49 children (M  ¼ 8.02 years, SD  ¼ 1.20, range 6–101) rated the plausibility and valence of 29 events on child-friendly 7-point Smiley scales (anchors:  ¼ implausible/negative,  ¼ plausible/positive) with bigger smiley faces referring to more plausible/more positive events. Speciï ¬ cally, children had to indicate how likely the events were to happen to them (e.g. ‘How likely is it that you almost choke on a candy’?; i.e. personal plausibility; Scoboria et al., 2004) and how pleasant the events were for them (e.g., ‘How pleasant is it that you almost choke on a candy’?). To ensure that they understood the events, all children rated two practice items. Furthermore, 19 children (M  ¼ 8.74 years, SD  ¼ 1.05, range 7–10) were instructed to report everything they knew about each event and the total number of idea units served as our measure of children’s script-knowledge about the events (Scoboria et al., 2004). Based on their ratings, we selected two events, almost choked on a candy and abducted by a UFO. These events were equal in terms of valence (Mchoking  ¼ 1.65, SDchoking  ¼ 1.48, MUFO  ¼ 1.94, SDUFO  ¼ 1.98, t(47) < 1, n.s.) and script knowledge (Mchoking  ¼ 1.11, SDchoking  ¼ 0.99, MUFO  ¼ 0.74, SDUFO  ¼ 1.05, t(18)  ¼ 1.20, n.s.), but differed in terms of plausibility with mean plausibility ratings being higher for the choking event (M  ¼ 5.86, SD  ¼ 2.02) than for the UFO event (M  ¼ 1.63, SD  ¼ 1.75, t(47)  ¼ 10.07, p < .001). Age did not correlate with plausibility, valence and script knowledge for the two events ( ps > .05). Children’s parents conï ¬ rmed that their child had never experienced the false events. The false narratives were: Almost choked on a candy: Your mother told me that you were at a birthday party when you were 4 years old. At this party you received a bag of candies. When you were at home again, you were allowed to have one candy. Your mother saw that you turned blue and she panicked. Then she hit you on the back and the candy came out. Abducted by a UFO: Your mother told me that when you were 4 years old, you were abducted by a UFO. This happened when you were alone outside. You mother was inside the house. Then she suddenly saw through the window that a UFO took you. False newspaper articles For the true and false events a newspaper article was fabricated describing that the event took place quite frequently when participants were age 4. These false newspaper articles were similar in appearance to a local newspaper. Moreover, to personalize the newspaper articles, we included the children’s hometown in the articles. The newspaper articles were 1 Because the age range of our pilot sample did not completely overlap with the age groups of our study, we conducted a 2 (pilot group: younger vs. older children)  2 (event: UFO vs. choking) ANOVA with the latter factor being a within subject factor to examine the effect of age on plausibility judgments. No signiï ¬ cant interaction emerged ( p > .05) indicating that age did not have an impact on the plausibility ratings of our two events. Therefore, the plausibility ratings of our pilot sample can be extended to the older group of our study were randomly assigned to the plausible or implausible event and to the prevalence or no prevalence information condition. Each child was interviewed individually twice over seven days. All interviews were audio taped and transcribed. During the interviews, one true narrative and one false narrative were read aloud, with the latter always being presented in the second position. The procedure of the interviews was similar to that used by Wade, Garry, Read, and Lindsay (2002). At the start of Interview 1, children were told that we were interested in their memories for events that had happened when they were 4 years old. Children were instructed to report everything they remembered about the events. In the prevalence information condition, they were told that to help them remember the events they would be provided with a newspaper article. Subsequently, the interviewer read out the article to the child. Children who did not describe details of the target event were told that ‘many people can’t recall certain events because they haven’t thought about them for such a long time. Please concentrate and try again’. If they still did not recall any details, the interviewer made use of context reinstatement and guided imagery. The purpose of these retrieval techniques was to take the children mentally back to the scene of the event. Speciï ¬ cally, children were told to close their eyes and they were asked to think about their feelings, who was with them, and about the time of the year. After this, children were asked again to recall any details about the event. If they still did not come up with details, the next narrative was presented or the interview was stopped. At the end of Interview 1, children were asked to think about the events every day until the next interview and they were instructed not to talk with others about the events. Parents were asked not to discuss these events with their children. Interview 2 was similar to Interview 1. At the end of Interview 2, they were debriefed using ethical guidelines for false memory research with children (Goodman, Quas, & Redlich, 1998). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION An extensive number of children were extremely surprised during the debrieï ¬ ng when they were told that the false event did not happen to them. For example, one 8-year old child responded ‘It really did happen’ where another one said ‘I really can remember seeing the UFO’. After the debrieï ¬ ng, 39% (n  ¼ 13) of the children remained absolutely conï ¬ dent that they experienced the false events. We debriefed these children until they understood the events were false. Together, these ï ¬ ndings suggest that the false memories in this study were not the result of children falsely assenting or trying to please the interviewer. True events True memories were categorized as either remembered or not remembered. To be categorized as remembered, children had to report at least two of the three personal details correctly. Children’s true recall was near ceiling. They remembered 88 (97%) events at Interview 1 and 89 (98%) events during Interview 2, x2(1)  ¼ .07, n.s. False events For the false events, two independent judges classiï ¬ ed each memory report as no false memory, images but not memories or false memory according to criteria used by Lindsay, Hagen, Read, Wade, and Garry (2004). If a child attempted to recall the false event, but did Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Appl. Cognit. Psychol. 23: 115–125 (2009) DOI: 10.1002/acp Prevalence information, plausibility, and children’s false memories not have any memory of the event or did not report any details that were beyond the false description, the report was categorized as no false memory. A report was judged as an image when children speculated about details and described images related to the false events. For example, one child reported: ‘I think I almost choked on a candy on the birthday of Mauk. I am not sure. It was not a pleasant feeling’. To be classiï ¬ ed as a false memory, children had to indicate that they remembered the event and provide details beyond those mentioned in the narrative, but related to the narrative. To give an example of a detail, one child stated that he remembered being taken to the UFO through a blue beam of light. If children stated that they thought the event and/or certain details could have happened, then this was not scored as a false memory. Furthermore, to minimize the effect of demand characteristics, direct responses to interviewer prompts were not classiï ¬ ed as a false memory. The following dialogue from Interview 2 illustrates a child’s false memory of the UFO abduction. Child: ‘I saw cameras and ï ¬â€šashes and some people in the UFO’. Interviewer: ‘How many people did you see’? Child: ‘Approximately nine or ten’. Interviewer: ‘What kind of people’? Child: ‘People like me, children’. Interviewer: ‘What else did you see’? Child: ‘I saw some people and also some blue/green puppets were passing’. Inter-rater agreement for classiï ¬ cation of the memory reports was high; k  ¼ 0.92 for Interview 1 and k  ¼ 0.94 for Interview 2. Collapsing across the conditions, at Interview 1, 33% (n  ¼ 30) of the children developed a false memory. Thirty per cent (n  ¼ 9) of these children assented to the false events immediately, that is prior to guided imagery and context reinstatement. Thirty-six per cent of the children (n  ¼ 33), with 67% (n  ¼ 20) immediately assenting, ‘remembered’ the false events at Interview 2, x2(1)  ¼ 26.61, p < .001, Cramer’s V  ¼ 0.54. Some of the children who rejected the false events at Interview 2 indicated, despite the explicit instruction at Interview 1, that they had discussed the false events with their parents. The increase in false memories over time is in line with previous studies with adults and children (e.g. Lindsay et al., 2004; Strange et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2002). Furthermore, 10% (n  ¼ 9) of the children were classiï ¬ ed as having an image of the false events at Interview 1. At Interview 2, this percentage decreased to 7% (n  ¼ 6), x2(1)  ¼ 58.53, p < .001, Cramer’s V  ¼ 0.80. Recall that the primary question in this study was whether prevalence information boosts the likelihood of plausible and implausible false memories. Table 1 shows the percentage and number of children who reported false memories as a function of interview and condition. To examine the role of age, event type, and prevalence information in the development of false memories, we conducted a logistic regression analysis with the dependent variable being false memory (0  ¼ no false memory/images, 1  ¼ false memory). In this analysis, we only focused on ‘genuine’ false memories and did not collapse across false memories and images. Although non-parametric methods, such as logistic regression, often lack the statistical power to detect interactions (Sawilowsky, 1990), there are four important points to note about these data. First, the only signiï ¬ cant interaction found was an Age  Prevalence information interaction at Interview 1. Prevalence information enhanced the development of 7–8 year old children’s false memories but not 11–12 year old children’s false memories, and this effect occurred at Interview 1 (B  ¼ 2.16, SE  ¼ 0.96, Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

101.Should talking and texting on a cell phone without a hands-free Essay

101.Should talking and texting on a cell phone without a hands-free device while driving be illegal - Essay Example More alarmingly, recent years of the road safety issues are derived from the mismanagement of communication devices during driving. A careless and distracted driving practice associated with talking or text messaging while the vehicle governance is on the rise in every part of the world. More noticeably, use of handheld devices during driving is more dangerous than permissible levels of drunk driving because the former holds the preoccupation of the driver indulging in impulsive variations. Thousands of lives are lost and many more are left permanently disabled due to the negligence of drivers of public transportation particularly. At this wake, it is essential to make an over view of the impact of the culpable practice of careless driving and raise an alarm in the minds of people about the peril closely following it. Severe violations of driving ethics from drivers cause damage to life of people from utter carelessness. In an accident, the impact of the negligence of one drover is born by either party involved and usually, the lighter vehicle gets most of the reward of the evil. As Barrouquere (Sep 14, 2011) reports, in Kentucky, a tractor-trailer crash on a van claimed nine lives on the spot in Interstate 65 on 26th March, 2010 – the reason was that the truck driver had just made and outgoing call that lasted for a second when the truck hit the van. The Kentucky accident alerted the authorities which came forward with bills banning the use of hand held communication devices, especially mobile phones during driving. Presently, there are many regulations of the use of handheld devices while driving but most of them are limited to marginal amount of penalty that prove insufficient to curb this problem. The identified reasons for increasing car and truck accidents reveal the role of employers, parent and consignees who make frequent and unexpected calls to the drivers of both commercial and private vehicles. At the moment,

Discuss the view presented by Nasim and Sushil (2011) that managing Essay

Discuss the view presented by Nasim and Sushil (2011) that managing change invariably involves managing paradoxes and in partic - Essay Example This view of organisation change’s reality indicates a postmodernist oncology, where change remains fluid and elusive. As a result, to understand it demands acknowledging and accepting its dynamic, fluid nature. Managing changes requires managing paradoxes through a postmodernist ontology with postconstructivist epistemology because of the existence of diverse types of changes, resistance to changes, and narratives for attaining individual and organisational changes. The paradox of change lies in the postmodernist ontology with postconstructivist epistemology. Postmodernist thinking on the study of being views reality as a combination of different ways of seeing. The study of organisational changes has intersected various concepts from diverse fields, such as child development and evolutionary biology, and yet not many scholars have integrated them in a systematic manner (van de Ven and Poole, 1995: 510). Poggie (1965: 284) remarks on the paradox of knowing reality: â€Å"A w ay of seeing is a way of not seeing.† One epistemological view of reality is one way of not seeing reality through another perspective. van de Ven and Poole (1995: 511) urge for an interdisciplinary approach to seeing the reality of organisational change: â€Å"It is the interplay between different perspectives that helps one gain a more comprehensive understanding of organisational life, because any one theoretical perspective invariably offers only a partial account of a complex phenomenon.† They promote a postmodernist view of seeing and knowing the reality of organisational change because it enriches its understanding. Furthermore, the paradox-of-change approach uses postconstructivist epistemology using competing theories to explore and to illustrate it. van de Ven and Poole (1995) offer a typology of process theories that examine how and why change happens in social or biological units. These are life cycle, teleological, dialectical and evolutionary process theor ies. These four theories stand for essentially different event chains and generative components that they called â€Å"motors† to depict the processes and causes of changes (van de Ven and Poole, 1995: 511). van de Ven and Poole (1995) stress that organisational change do not neatly fit only one of these process theories because some conditions can stimulate interdependent changes across different organisational elements. They stress the complexity of changes: â€Å"Even though each of these types has its own internal logic, complexity and the potential for theoretical confusion arise from the interplay among different motors† (van de Ven and Poole, 1995: 534). The paradox of changes arises from the reality of spontaneous effects of changes, anticipated or otherwise. Sturdy and Grey (2003) criticise the one-sided view of organisational change management (OCM) discourses that emphasise stability over changes. They offer different views of changes using discourse analysi s. They conclude the need for using different lenses in understanding changes and in attaining effective changes. Hence, this essay finds it useful to see changes from a postmodernist view of organisational reality and knowledge. The paradox of change and continuity affects different kinds and stages of changes. Managing changes in different types of changes require balancing change and continuity. Nadler and Tushman (1989) examined diverse large-scale organisational changes and provided several insights and generalisations. They reviewed

Architecture of any civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Architecture of any civilization - Essay Example Architecture is an overt expression of the culture and beliefs of any society. Though the basic principle of manipulation of space in order to control the user of the space is universal, the subtleties may vary with the culture. A study of the various monuments belonging to different cultures that existed at different periods of history will help us understand this idea. We will first travel back to prehistoric times and take a glimpse at the 'Great Stone Tower of Jericho'. By doing so we will try to capture some of the beliefs, priorities and traditions of the people that lived in those times. This monumental structure was built between 8000 and 7000 BC. This tower makes Jericho the oldest known city in the world. The tower also proposes that the people who built it had settled there and were not nomadic food hunters. They also had an organized community in order to carry out such a task. The tower has only one entrance and steps made of well carved stones that lead to the summit. The summit is circular in shape. The structure controls the movement of the user by its single entrance and the steps that allow only up and down movement. The purpose of the tower seems to be defense which appears to be a very important consideration of that community. This could be the reason for building five feet thick walls and ditches around these towers. This shows that the people were in fear of a mighty foe that they had to keep out of their territory, and for the people that built this structure life must have revolved around military and other defense problems of their day. This structure thus gives us a picture of the life of the people in those times. Nothing can match the excellent example of the pyramids when it comes to architecture and space manipulation. The pyramids are also a primary source of information about the life and death beliefs and ceremonies of the people and the kings that ruled them. The primary function of these pyramids was to serve as funerary complexes to the pharaohs who were worshipped as gods. These gigantic monuments speak with the voice of the dead about the enchantment of the people of their times with the afterlife. The preserved body of the pharaoh with the provisions needed for his afterlife was kept in these pyramids. They also served as ceremonial cites and places of worship where the people worshipped the deceased king as God. To this day they stand as an architectural marvel. The size of these structures is massive and the question of how the huge stones were carried up as the building progressed is a mystery. Another interesting part of the pyramid was the Ben Ben which formed the capstone of the pyramid. This was made of shining material like gold or silver. The Ben Ben is believed to represent the rays of the sun. Egyptians worshipped and revered the sun god as the supreme provider of life on earth. The hieroglyphics on the pyramid also talks about the solar eclipse, and other planetary events, telling us how the Egyptians followed the happenings on the sky and related them to life here on earth. The Stepped Pyramid and mortuary precinct of Djoser, Saqqara, Egypt, was built between 2630-2611 BCE. It was built as a grandiose royal tomb. Such monuments represented eternal life after death and were designed to last for. A great amount of money and manpower was pumped in to build these. The shape of the pyramid with the slopes on the four sides

Argumentative Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Argumentative Research - Essay Example They include harsh treatment of the minor offences, engaging the offender’s family, and failure to protect the innocent. The sex laws in America are unjust. Small and large offences are treated the same way, which is not fair. For example teenagers who engage in sex, they are legally allowed to be punishable by law. In addition, those sharing revealing photos get the same punishment with those who have committed the rape offence. The law puts their names in their registry (The Economist, 2009). The teenagers do not have the knowledge about the sex laws but they undergo the same treatment as if they were acquitted with the law. It is not fair to treat the cases the same. In the end, this ruins their lives and this is an issue per se to punish and publish their names in the registry of sex offenders. The American sex law punishes both the offender and their families. Not anyone with the offence is allowed to interact with other people directly. An example is a man who once slept with their girlfriend is not allowed to take his children to the playground or any public place (The Economist, 2009). The children are likely to suffer because of the offence committed by their dad thirty or so years ago. Notably, this is an unfair treatment of the innocent children. In addition, restraining the sex offenders from finding a job a home makes likely to reoffend. The police are not able to identify and trace the dangerous offences due to the registration of pretty offenders. Some of the serious offenders go unrealized and un-convicted. It is unfair because, those with mere cases get severe punishment and leaving those with serious offences (The Economist, 2009). It is hard to get the most dangerous offenders due to the large number of offenders. They operate under very tight budget to sustain the huge and swelling sex-offenders. The law is unfair and it makes it difficult to re-design America’s sex laws. The state must take a hand in assessing each of the

The Reasons for the Civil War in China Between the KMT and CCP Essay

The Reasons for the Civil War in China Between the KMT and CCP (1945-49) and why the CCP Won - Essay Example Although the Communists got permission to be part of the KMT in small numbers, Chiang started a purge of communists since he abhorred the Soviet interfering in Chinese political affairs. This eventually led to the Chinese civil war (Eastman 11). Following the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, which was the final ruling Chinese dynasty, China fell into the control of a number of significant, as well as lesser warlords within the era of the Warlords. Therefore in order to trounce these warlords, who succeeded in seizing control of the greater part of Northern China, it was necessary for the anti-monarchist, together with the national unificationist Kuomintang party, along with Sun Yat-sen, who was its leader, to seek the assistance of foreign powers. The efforts of Sun Yat-sen in obtaining assistance from the Western democracies bore no fruits these led to him seeking help from the Soviet Union in 1921. In favour of political convenience, the Soviet leadership instigated a dual pol icy for supporting for both Sun, as well as the newly founded Communist Party of China that subsequently instituted the People's Republic of China. This resulted in the struggle for power within China between the KMT, along with the CPC (Eastman 25). ... in the reorganization, in addition to the consolidation of, the KMT alongside the Communist Party of Soviet Union, leading to the CPC uniting the KMT, thereby developing into the First United Front. This is the same year that saw Sun Yat-sen sending Chiang Kai-shek, who happened to be one of his lieutenants to Moscow for some months' military, as well as political study. By 1924, Chiang got promoted to head Whampoa Military Academy, then later rising to fame as Sun's successor, thereby heading the KMT. The Soviets offered the majority of the studying items, organization, in addition to the equipment comprising, of munitions for the academy. Apart from that, the Soviets also offered education in various methods for mass mobilization. This assisted Sun Yat-sen in raising a number of devoted troops, with the intention of defeating the warlords militarily. On the other hand, CPC members also got the opportunity of joining the academy with the majority of them becoming instructors. Howeve r, the communist members got the opportunity of uniting the KMT on the basis of an individual. At that time, the CPC was still exceedingly small, having only 300 members in 1922, and in 19925, only 1,500 members while the KMT had 50,000 members in 1923 (Eastman 54). The split of KMT and CPC In the beginning of 1927, there was rivalry between KMT and CPC leading to a split within the revolutionary positions. The CPC, along with left wing of KMTmade a decision of moving the KMT government’s seat to Wuhan from Guangzhou, where the influence of communist was strong. However, Chiang, together with Li Zongren, whose armies conquered warlord Sun Chuanfang, progressed eastward towards Jiangxi. As a result of the leftists rebuffing Chiang's demand, Chiang condemned the leftists for going against

The Use of Knowledge in Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Use of Knowledge in Society - Essay Example Since the process of decision making process is heavily influenced by the type of knowledge possessed and the type of organizations involved, the motivation for decision making i.e. the type and level of knowledge possessed by them, is of crucial significance. This essay on ‘Use of knowledge in Society’ aims to discuss, analyse, and assess the views put forward by the author, F. A. Hayek (1945) and ascertain the implications of the claims made in view of various micro-economic theories and concepts. Summary: The article by Hayek (1945) on the use of knowledge in society discusses the various merits and influence of price mechanisms on the decision making process and role of specific knowledge as a decision-making mechanism. He states that â€Å"The peculiar character of the problem of a rational economic order is determined precisely by the fact that the knowledge of the circumstances of which we must make use never exists in concentrated or integrated form but solely a s the dispersed bits of incomplete and frequently contradictory knowledge which all the separate individuals possess (p. 519)." He implies that that it is humanly impossible for a single individual to possess all the relevant information to arrive at a favourable decision. The quest of individuals with regard to addressing the economic problem is hence not about applying the available information or knowledge for optimum utilization of resources but rather on the manner in which the best possible resources can be acquired by means of the limited knowledge available at our disposal. Merits of the argument: Product specific or consumer specific knowledge is known to help firms / organizations in maximizing their profits and sustaining their competitive positioning in the industry. The application of market oriented specific knowledge by the organizations helps firms in warding off competition and in developing effective strategies. Critical information or knowledge regarding one's com petitors such as products, prices, or policies adopted by them etc., plays a key role in producing market/ consumer oriented ideas/ products thus helping organizations in effectively catering to their target consumer/ market segment (Glazer, 1991). Such market / consumer oriented strategies developed based specific knowledge provides organizations with a competitive advantage (Barney, 1991) and helps them in succeeding regardless of the presence of negative influences / obstacles in the external environment (Jaworski and Kohli, 1993; Narver and Slater, 1990). Hayek has stressed the relevance and significance of knowledge in the development of society stating that awareness and application of specific knowledge is likely to contribute towards the overall development of the society and it is hence vital for individuals and societies to acquire and apply such knowledge for generating and maximizing their profits. Since capital is by far the most critical input of production in an indus trial society, possession of appropriate knowledge is inevitable for enabling effective decision making in order

Globalization is a Good Thing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Globalization is a Good Thing - Essay Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that globalization has had a long history, with some scholars believing that it has spanned millennia but this form of globalization has come to be surpassed by that which is taking place in the current world. Globalization, as it is today, is mainly based on the idea of free trade and the fact that people from all over the world have come to depend on one another to acquire commodities for their daily use. Thus, one would suggest that while globalization has enabled the development of positive relations between people of different cultures, it has also had some negative impacts as well. Globalization has led to the increase of understanding between peoples from different cultures and backgrounds and this has ensured that individuals, who in previous years could not interact peacefully, can now do so without any prejudice and stereotypes. The interaction between people from different cultures has taken place mainly because of the fact that th ere have developed new forms of technology such as social networks. The latter form of technology has enabled the interaction of individuals from all over the world and has made it possible for individuals of diverse cultural backgrounds, who have not met face to face, to become friends. This has ensured that a situation has developed where these individuals have come to understand each other and found out the reasons behind each other’s cultural practices, hence greater understanding. The cultural understanding that has developed has also led to the creation of greater conditions to enable world peace and it is for this reason that not only governments but also individuals have taken the initiative to work towards the achievement of lasting global peace.

The Long Road Ahead Essay Example for Free

The Long Road Ahead Essay Good afternoon , I am James Brady. Born and raised in Akron,Ohio for the past 25 years. I am currently attending The University of Akron for my Bachelors in the science of nursing. My life has taken many different roads when it comes to career choices. I graduated from Garfield high school in 2006 where I took the vocation of Heating Cooling and Air Conditioning. After highschool I attended Mount Union where I played offensive guard for the football team. While attending Mount Union i was enrolled in the Police Academy, but unfortunate event happened. I took a cheap shot to the knee during a football game and was unable to continue playing. Along with losing my ability to play football, I also lost my first career choice. I decided to come back home to Akron and have my knee fixed. After knee surgery and rehab I got a job working at Goodyear as a chemical operator. Being 19 years old making good money i believed i was living my definition of the Dream. That dream of mine ended abruptly two years later when Goodyear had big layoffs. Being stuck without a job and a mortage payment, I began to reasse my life at this point. While sitting at the Drs office for a check up on my knee I started a conversation with a paramedic about possibly pursueing a career as a medic. The paramedic politely pushed me into becoming a nurse explaining to me all the different types of oppurtunitys there are in the nursing field. After a lot of conteplating, I decided to attend Akron School of Practical Nursing. ASPN was a 9 month accelerated LPN program , where I graduated with Honors and the class president. Shortly after school I got a job working at the Medina County Juvenile Detention Center as a nurse. Recieving my LPN license was just a stepping stone in my career path of becoming a BSN. After graduating from LPN school I started at the University of Akron where I was able to skip the waiting list and get right into the nursing program without a wait due to already having my nursing licenses as an LPN. So after the long road i have traveled since high school i am currently here today working at juvenile detention center, going to school full time and raising my son.

Meaning of life - United Kingdom Essay Example for Free

Meaning of life United Kingdom Essay 1. How does Pontiac understand the meaning of freedom? In his notion freedom meant getting rid of the English who had conquered the French and had gained more control over the Indians lands than ever. He believed they had to fight the English and pushed them out of their ancestors lands. As he said â€Å"Although you have conquered the French, you have not yet conquered us! We are not your slaves. These lake, these woods and mountains, were left to us by our ancestors. They are our inheritance; and we will part with them to none. 2. What elements of Indian life does Neolin criticize most strongly? He criticized Pontiac for using European technology, doing fur trade with the Whites, using their cloths and consuming alcohol instead of fighting against the English which he called them â€Å"the dogs who dressed red† and surrendering himself to them. He argued that he (Pontiac) should clothe himself in skins and use the bows and arrows and his tradition to fight back against their enemies. 3. How does this document relate to and inform the related part of the Chapter in the main text? This document discusses on how Pontiac started his journey to meet with Delaware religious prophet Neolin and on how Neolin guided Pontiac on how he should fight back in opposed to the English by getting back to his tradition that he inherited from his ancestors. 4. What impact did the primary source had on your understanding and beliefs? It was very interesting to see how much Indians cared about spiritual beliefs and how strong their viewpoint were when it comes to their traditional faith. Even though, the English had believed they were faithless and savages, but the truth was they were full of spiritual thoughts.

Pharmacy is a health profession

Pharmacy is a health profession Chapter 1 The word is derived from the Greek word pharmakon meaning drug or medicine and has been used since the 15th and 17th centuries 1. Pharmacy is a health profession that combines the health sciences with the chemical sciences. It ensures the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs. Pharmacy practice includes modern services that are related to health care: clinical services, providing drug information and reviewing medications for safety and efficacy purposes 1. 1.1.1 The various disciplines of Pharmacy Pharmacy can be divided into three major disciplines: a) Pharmaceutics b) Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy c) Pharmacy Practice Pharmacology is often considered to be a fourth discipline but is not specific to pharmacy, even though it is essential. The boundaries between the different disciplines and other sciences like biochemistry are not clear cut. Hence, research work from the various disciplines is often done concurrently 2. 1 The Hormone Shop LLC. The History of Pharmaceutical Compunding. [home page on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.thehormoneshop.com/historyofcompoundingpharmacy.htm 2 Dayanada Sagar College of Pharmacy, Bangalore, India. History of Pharmacy. [home page on the Internet]. 2008 [cited 2010 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.dscpharmacy.org/pharmacy.php 1.1.2 The Pharmacist and Community Pharmacy Pharmacists are skilled and highly-trained health care professionals who ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients. In the community pharmacy, the pharmacist has various roles and these include amongst others (Azzopardi, 2010): a) the procurement of medications that are suitable for human consumption b) ensuring the appropriate conditions for the storage of medicines c) ensuring the appropriate and safe disposal of expired medicines d) dispensing of medications that are either on a prescription, or pharmacist-recommended or asked for directly by the patient e) point-of-care testing f) offering general medical advice without the need of a prior appointment. The practice of community pharmacy varies between countries. Nevertheless, the basic functions and responsibilities are the same. A community pharmacist builds a special relationship with the clients, especially the regular ones. Hence, communication skills are of major importance. The pharmacist finds him / herself comforting and hearing out the patient when necessary, and is expected to be understanding and also a good listener. 1.2 History of Pharmacy The first pharmacies, apothecaries as they were formerly known, were founded in the Middle Ages in Baghdad. The first one was founded in the year 754 AD by Muslim pharmacists during the Islamic Golden Age 2. During the 11th century, community pharmacies were established in southern France and southern Italy. In 1240, Emperor Frederick II issued a decree the medical profession was to be separated from the pharmacy profession. Pharmacy practice was to be supervised so that drugs of a suitable quality would be prepared and produced (Azzopardi, 2010). The history of pharmacy can be classified into three stages: a) compounding and dispensing b) clinical pharmacy c) pharmaceutical care. Originally, the pharmacists had to prepare and dispense medicines so they had to excel at compounding. The community pharmacist was therefore highly esteemed because the preparation of medicines was greatly valued in society. In fact, at that time, the pharmacists and other professionals such as lawyers, medical doctors and parish priests were the leaders in the community. As time passed, newly discovered drugs became more dangerous and potent so they started being prepared by manufacturing companies. The pharmacists role was only to dispense these drugs (Al-Shaqha, Zairi, 2001). 2 Dayanada Sagar College of Pharmacy, Bangalore, India. History of Pharmacy. [home page on the Internet]. 2008 [cited 2010 Oct 10]. Available from: http://www.dscpharmacy.org/pharmacy.php Pharmacists moved to clinical practice about 25 years ago. The original concept of clinical pharmacy services was based on the fact that pharmacists ought to use their professional knowledge to ensure the appropriate and safe use of drugs in patients. As a result, several pharmacists nowadays work in hospitals, nursing homes and some ambulatory clinics. Problems remained within the drug-use-system despite the advances made in clinical pharmacy and documenting and recognising these problems has led to the concept of pharmaceutical care becoming the new basis for pharmacy practice (Al-Shaqha, Zairi, 2001). 1.2.1 History of pharmacy in Malta 1.2.1.1 History of pharmacy in Malta from the late 15th century until the arrival of the Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in 1530 Before 1500, the pharmacists in Malta were almost all Sicilian. In the early 15th century, pharmacists were employed either by the Universita or by the Hospital of Santo Spirito. Mastru Salvatore Passa is the first documented pharmacist in Malta who practised in Mdina and the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Rabat from 1450 to 1475. The medicines prescribed in those days were mainly herbal. During this period, Passa often travelled to Sicily due to his work, presumably to import medicinal herbs as many herbs did not form part of the local flora (Borg, 1998). 1.2.1.2 Pharmacy under the Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem The Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem arrived in Malta on the 26th October, 1530 and they applied their knowledge of pharmacy to the practice in Malta. A Holy Infirmary in Birgu was built and the Greek pharmacist, Giacomo Gualterio, who had accompanied the Order to Malta was the apothecary (Borg, 1998). Grand Master Nicholas Cottoner established the School of Anatomy and Surgery at the Holy Infirmary in 1676. It is very probable that a Pharmacy course was established in the school (Borg, 1998). Under the Knights, the practice of pharmacy in Malta changed gradually, but continuously, occurring in a similar way to that in Europe. However, extemporaneous preparations remained the same from the times of Mastru Salvatore Passa because the enlargement of the pharmaceutical industry still had to occur (Borg, 1998). 1.2.1.3 Pharmacy under the French and British colonies The French arrived in Malta in 1798. There were no more than 32 pharmacies under their dominion, each one having an average clientele of 3,000 patients. No changes were made to the laws governing the practice of pharmacy under the French. Hence, the daily activities of the pharmacists were identical to those of under the Knights. The laws established by the Knights of the Order of St. John remained in force until 1900. In their stay in Malta, which lasted for about one hundred years, the British left their mark on the pharmacy profession. The use of the English language, the names of pharmacies pertaining to Britain or England and the consulting room in the pharmacy are all such examples (Borg, 1998). 1.2.1.4 Pharmacy in the 20th century The Medical and Kindred Professions Ordinance of the Laws of Malta, governs pharmacy laws. This was enacted in 1900 as the laws governing the profession at that time had become outdated and needed restructuring. A legislation that allowed pharmacists to dispense certain medicaments without a prescription was enacted in October 1955 and on the 12th October 1955, a list of these substances was published in the Malta Government Gazette (Borg, 1998). The Malta Chamber of Pharmacists was founded in 1900 in order to protect the common interests of the pharmacists and also to maintain the professions dignity. Hence, the professions standards were raised by enabling the profession to keep abreast of the changes that were occurring internationally (Borg, 1998). In April 1961, an Extraordinary General Meeting was held by the Chamber to discuss the issue of forming a Trade Union that would represent pharmacists; all 33 pharmacists present agreed that this was necessary. One of the Unions objectives, among others, was to improve the conditions under which the profession was exercised and to promote the interests of pharmacists. The Pharmacy Board was set up in 1968 and this was the greatest achievement of the Chamber and Union. The Union worked very closely with the Chamber and in 1979 they formed one association, i.e. the Chamber of Pharmacists Trade Union. This association worked very hard and it affected the current state of the profession and also the legislation governing the practice of pharmacy (Borg, 1998). In 1984, after several meetings with the Chamber, it was finally decided that new pharmacies ought to be owned by pharmacists and that before granting new permits, the population ratio has to be taken into consideration (Borg, 1998). Patients could get their free medications from the Central Hospital Dispensary and Government Dispensaries throughout the first fifty years of the 20th century. The latter could be found in most villages around Malta. In 1954, the Central Hospital at Floriana was turned into the Headquarters of The Malta Police Force as by the late 1940s, St. Lukes Hospital became Maltas General Hospital. Hence, the Out-Patient Dispensary of St. Lukes Hospital became the Central Government Dispensary (Borg, 1998). Pharmamed, the first local pharmaceutical enterprise, was founded in 1974. This gave rise to several job opportunities in the industrial field, besides enhancing Maltas image abroad. In 1995, as a result of strong and consistent negotiations and representations by the Maltese Chamber of Pharmacists, there was the appointment of the first director of the Government Pharmaceutical Services (GPS). This was part of the reform of the GPS and the career progression of pharmacists in Government service. It was concluded in 1998 in agreement with the Ministry of Health on the full implementation of the GPS reform. 1.2.1.5 Pharmacy in the 21st century In June 2007, Mater Dei Hospital replaced St. Lukes Hospital as the national hospital of Malta. The last of the personnel migrated to Mater Dei by November of that year. Hence, the main Government Dispensary was moved to Mater Dei as well 3. In 2008, the much awaited and debated Scheme of the Pharmacy of Your Choice (POYC) was introduced. This Scheme enables the people to have an easier and more comfortable access to the medicaments that are given for free by the Government. 3 Mater Dei Hospital Malta. [homepage on the Internet]. 2009 [cited 2010 Oct 23]. Available from: http://malta.cc/health-care/mater-dei-hospital-malta/ Thus the service that was previously provided for by the village Health Centre Dispensaries was transferred to the community pharmacies. The patients chose the pharmacy of their choice. The initial stages of the POYC Scheme do not envisage any changes in the reimbursement system. Therefore, patients who are entitled to take free medication will continue to do so; there is no co-payment (Grima IC). Until January 2011, the POYC Scheme had spread to 96 Maltese community pharmacies and to 17 community pharmacies in Gozo. Following the introduction of the Scheme, the village Health Centre Dispensaries where the Scheme was initiated, were closed down after sufficient time had elapsed. Over the past few years, the number of local pharmaceutical manufacturing companies has dramatically increased. So has the number of locally licensed pharmaceutical wholesalers who import medications from EU countries. There are more pharmaceutical products registered with the local Medicines Authority. This has had a positive impact on both the private and public pharmaceutical sectors due to the availability of more different therapeutic classes of medicines and more medicines that fall within the same therapeutic class (Grima IC). Recently, the number of generic medicinals in the private sector has also increased considerably. Nowadays, a pharmacist can substitute a branded prescribed medicinal with a generic product that is cheaper for the patient (Bugeja, 2007). Accession into the European Union in May 2004 had a great impact on the medicines in Malta, especially with regards to their availability. Some medicines that were previously available were not registered due to the high registration costs. Hence, EU accession improved the quality of medicines. On the other hand, it had a negative impact on their availability and affordability (Bugeja, 2008). The prices of medicines in Malta increased considerably after EU accession in 2004. In fact, according to studies carried out, the Maltese are paying about 40% more than the average price for medicinal products in the European Union 4. In July 2010, the Parliamentary Secretary, Chris Said, announced reductions in prices of 62 medicines. Some of these reductions were to be implemented immediately whereas with others, when stocks were sold out. Many medicines in Malta are overpriced when compared to other EU countries, so this was a step in the right direction 5,6. 1.3 Pharmaceutical Care In 1990, Hepler and Strand looked at the responsibilities of the pharmacist and at pharmacy services in a new way. They applied the term pharmaceutical care and over the years pharmacists have endeavoured to develop pharmaceutical care practices (Foppe, Schulz 2006). According to Hepler and Strand (1990): 4 Maltastar. The price of medicines in Malta under European Commission scrutiny. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 27]. Available from: http://www.maltastar.com/pages/rl/ms10dart.asp?a=11804 5 Xuereb M. Makers cut prices of 62 medicines. Times of Malta [serial on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 27]. Available from: http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20100703/local/makers-cut-prices-of-62-medicines 6 Vella Matthew. Medicine importers agree to cuts in prices of up to 67%. MaltaToday [serial on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 27]. Available from: http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/medicines/medicine-importers-agree-to-cuts-in-prices-of-up-to-6 Pharmaceutical care is the responsible provision of drug therapy for the purpose of achieving definite outcomes that improve a patients quality of life. These outcomes are (1) cure of a disease, (2) elimination or reduction of a patients symptomatology, (3) arresting or slowing of a disease process, or (4) preventing a disease or symptomatology. In their definition of pharmaceutical care, Hepler and Strand looked at the patients quality of life (Strand et al, 1991). Pharmaceutical care involves a pharmacist cooperating with the patient and members of other health care professions 7. This interprofessional relationship allows the implementation, design and monitoring of a therapeutic plan that will have specific therapeutic outcomes for the patient to benefit from (Ford, Jones, 1995). Pharmacists are the last health care professionals to come in contact with the patients. They thus have a major role in educating them regarding drug use. For this reason, pharmacists must be adequately trained and have excellent communication skills in order to provide this service in an effective manner (Alkhawajah, 1992). Pharmaceutical care can therefore be seen as the component of pharmacy practice that has to be performed by a competent pharmacist who must be committed, honest, accountable and loyal to the patient (Strand et al, 1991). 1.4 The Health Care System in Malta Maltas health care system is divided into the public / national health care system and the private health care system in which pharmaceutical services are provided for by 211 pharmacies that are distributed around Malta and Gozo. The public / national health system is based on a model that is founded on the principles of Equity, Solidarity and Justice. 7 American Pharmacists Association. Principles of practice for pharmaceutical care. [homepage on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 2010 Oct 12]. Available from: https://www.caremark.com/portal/assset/Principles_of_Practice_for_Pharmaceutical_Care.pdf 1.4.1 The Public Health Care System The Maltese Government consists of different Ministries, one of these being the Ministry of Health, Elderly and Community Care. This deals with the healthcare needs of the people and ensures that adequate services are provided for 8. The main goals of the Government for the public health services include 9: The concern of the patient, which is a constant issue The provision of health care and its management The value for money The sustainability of public health care. The Maltese Medicines Authority controls and ensures the quality, safety and efficacy of the pharmaceuticals that are available locally. It also authorizes the medicines that are to be placed on the local market. The Government Health Procurement Services (GHPS) is responsible for the purchasing, storage and distribution of all the pharmaceuticals that are required by the Government Health Services (GHS) in Malta. This entity operates with the funds that are allocated annually by the Government. Procurement of pharmaceuticals is done via tendering procedures that are regulated by the Public Service (Procurement) and Public Contracts regulations. 8 Government of Malta. The health care system in Malta. [homepage on the Internet]. No date [cited 2010 Oct 25]. Available from: The Government of Malta, Web site: http://www.sahha.gov.mt/pages.aspx?page=156 9 Integrated health information system phase 2. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 24]. Available from: The Government of Malta, The Malta Information Technology Agency Web site: https://www.mita.gov.mt/TenderFile.aspx?tfid=727 1.4.1.1 Primary Health Care The Government delivers primary health care via the Health Centres that are distributed around various villages in Malta and Gozo. These centres were set up in 1980 in order to provide free health care services 9. Besides providing the free services of general practitioners, these centres also provide a vast range of other services, including: Specialist clinics eg: gynaecological clinics and diabetes clinics Laboratory diagnostic facilities Radiology. Many people choose to have the services of private general practitioners and / or specialists who work in the primary health care sector. In the private scenario, their services are against payment. 1.4.1.2 Secondary and Tertiary Health Care These are provided for by public and private hospitals, found in different locations in Malta. The main public hospital is Mater Dei Hospital and it provides a wide range of services, including transplant surgery, open heart surgery, emergency care and diagnostic services. Sir Paul Boffa Hospital, another public hospital, has an oncology and dermatology unit. Mount Carmel Hospital is the islands public psychiatric hospital. There are a number of private hospitals in Malta, amongst which is Saint James Capua Hospital. 9 Integrated health information system phase 2. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2010 Oct 24]. Available from: The Government of Malta, The Malta Information Technology Agency Web site: https://www.mita.gov.mt/TenderFile.aspx?tfid=727 1.5 Free health services provided by the government The Government provides free health services; free at the point of delivery, as these are directly funded from general taxation. In Malta, the boundary between the private and public sectors can be seen from two different aspects: medical and pharmaceutical (Wismayer, 2010). 1.5.1 The Medical Aspect The healthcare is available to ALL Maltese citizens, irrespective of the social and financial background of the patient. Anybody can turn up at a Health Centre or public hospital and be given the necessary treatment. Hence, up to a certain extent there is a holistic attitude as no distinction is made between citizens and whoever requires a healthcare service is provided with what is needed (Wismayer, 2010). The seams start to show up when the services available in the public health system are not accessible. That sector of society who can afford to pay, will therefore have to seek the services from the private sector. A case in point is the long waiting lists for certain required procedures at Mater Dei Hospital. 1.5.2 The Pharmaceutical Aspect One of the major tools to achieve good healthcare is to provide good pharmaceutical care. From this aspect, there is a clearer distinction between the private and public sectors. The Government offers free medications to a number of people who fall under different categories: The Schedule II Patients (Pink Card Holders) These cards are issued from the Department of Social Security. They are accompanied by a pink form which bears the name of the pink card holder. The total household income is assessed and the entitlement is based on this. Each household has one pink form that lists all members. However, every member of the household has his / her pink card. The pink form and pink card entitle their holders to free medication that is listed on the Government Formulary. Diabetics also have a pink card issued in their name. There are several faults in the administration of this system, as there does not seem to be a distinction between the strata of society, as is the case with some affluent people who are also in possession of a pink card. Also, no distinction is made between hospital in-patients and out-patients; there is only one formulary for all. 10. The Schedule V Patients (Yellow Card Holders) If a person suffers from a medical condition that is listed under the fifth schedule of the Social Security Act, then he / she can benefit from this free service, irrespective of the financial position. Examples of these conditions include: Respiratory conditions Cardiovascular diseases Malignant diseases Schizophrenia Liver diseases CNS diseases 10. 10 Ministry for Health, the Elderly and Community Care. Free medicinals. [homepage on the Internet]. No date [cited 2010 Oct 12]. Available from: The Government of Malta, Web site: http://www.sahha.gov.mt/pages.aspx?page=8 When a patient is diagnosed with such a condition, he / she is referred to a Consultant by the General Practitioner. The Consultant applies for a Schedule V Card for the patient listing the required medications. Subsequently, the patient is issued with the Card from the Almoner Section at St. Lukes Hospital. People who possess a yellow card are only entitled to take the medications that are listed on the card for free. The list must be amended if the treatment is changed. The Government Hospital In-Patients Any patient resident in the Government Hospitals is entitled to free medication. To date, there is only one Government formulary for all public hospitals. It would make more sense if each hospital had its own formulary due to the specialisation of the hospitals that varies accordingly. These formularies ought to be put together by the doctors who work at the hospitals and by the pharmacists who know what medications are available and which are best suited for the patients. Other people entitled to free medicines include amongst others: Members of certain religious orders Inmates of charitable institutions Refuse collection employees Prisoners People who are injured on duty Members of the Police Forces below the grade of Sub Inspector AFM personnel 11. 11 Ministry for Health, the Elderly and Community Care. Free medicinals. [homepage on the Internet]. No date [cited 2010 Oct 12]. Available from: The Government of Malta, Web site: http://www.sahha.gov.mt/pages.aspx?page=172 1.6 The Pharmacy of Your Choice Scheme The Pharmacy of your choice Scheme (POYC) falls under the umbrella of the Health Division in Malta. The latter is under the portfolio of the Ministry of Health, the Elderly and Community Care. POYC is under the direct responsibility of the Permanent Secretary of Health. The Scheme started in 2008 after several years of discussions and debates. It enables the people to have an easier and more comfortable access to the medicaments that they are entitled to take for free from the Government. The Scheme started in 2008 with an estimate budget of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬460,000 and the actual expenditure for that year amounted to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬366,000. In 2009, the estimate budget was of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬400,000 and that for 2010 was of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1.5 million. The 2011 budget allocated à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1 million to the Scheme apart from the additional à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬400,000 which had to be injected to strengthen the electronic system. The POYC pilot study started in December 2007 in two pharmacies in the Ghargur area. About 550 patients were registered in these pharmacies. Mgarr was next (one community pharmacy having approximately 600 patients), followed by Mellieha (three pharmacies having approximately 1500 pateints) in January 2008 and Naxxar in February 2008 ( Sant Fournier, 2008). Most community pharmacies enrolled in the POYC when the Scheme was introduced in their villages. For example, in the Mosta area, which includes Naxxar, St. Pauls Bay, Xemxija, Gharghur, Mgarr, Mellieha and Mosta, only one out of the 24 community pharmacies did not join in the Scheme due to lack of space (Zahra, 2007). With the introduction of the POYC Scheme, the village Health Centre Dispensaries were closed down after sufficient time had elapsed to allow for a seamless transition. 1.6.1 Advantages associated with the POYC Scheme The main scope of the POYC Scheme was to reduce the long queues at the Health Centre Government Dispensaries. Also, patients are monitored better by the community pharmacists who ensure that the medicines are taken in the correct way as more patient advice is given on a one-to-one basis when compared to the previous system (Zahra, 2007). Pharmacy practice in the community has always focussed on the establishment of an excellent patient-pharmacist relationship (Sant Fournier, 2007). This advice is lacking in the public sector as the patients are given the medicines they require with haste, due to the large number of people waiting to collect their medications. Dosage regimen advice is usually the only advice given. Many people used to turn to their community pharmacists anyway to seek advice and to solve any queries they may have had. With this Scheme, there is also a decrease in wastage because patients are not given the medicines if these are not required, despite the fact that they are entitled to them. Sant Fournier, the President of the Malta Chamber of Pharmacists, claimed that most patients have become more educated and as a result acknowledge the fact that medicines are not to be taken as a for granted privilege but must be used rationally (Borg, Bonello, 2009). The patients find it easier to confide in their habitual pharmacist rather than talk to someone who they do not know. 1.6.2 Problems associated with The POYC Scheme According to Mario Debono, the then General Retailers Trade Union (GRTU) Pharmacy and Health Division President, this system has been a success even though it would improve if more money is allocated by the Government and if it receives more attention (Borg, Bonello, 2009). As with any other recently introduced systems, there are flaws. Nevertheless, several efforts are being made to sort them out. The main problem that is associated with the POYC Scheme is the large number of medicines that are out of stock. This is causing unnecessary stress on the pharmacists and patients. The latter have to go to a Government Health Centre Dispensary that is still open or to Mater Dei Out-Patients Pharmacy to get the medications that are not available from the Scheme. However, this out of stock problem is not the fault of the POYC Department but it has got to do with the purchasing system of the Government. In October 2009, Debono stated that a possible reason why such a large number of medicines is out of stock is that some suppliers have not been paid for their services. Shortages of certain medicines abroad could also lead to decreased stock levels (Borg, Bonello, 2009). The Government did not organise any educational campaigns for the general public regarding the implementation of the POYC Scheme, even though it was advised to do so (Sant Fournier, 2009). Hence, pharmacists were faced with several problems, including sometimes, heated arguments with their patients. It was recommended to have the campaign based on the one used for the introduction of the Euro in Malta, the Malta Euro Changeover Campaign. In October 2009. Reginald Fava, the then President of the Malta Chamber of Commerce, Enterprise and Industry, made new proposals to upgrade the POYC system which were estimated to cut at least a third of present consumption and abuse. He described the current POYC system as being obscene because according to him medicines were being collected even when they were not required by the patients. Fava suggested that patients ought to pay for the medicines they require and will be reimbursed by the Government at a later stage. With this proposed system, the patients would also have the option to go for more advanced or more expensive medications as compared to their entitlement, and will only have to pay the difference in price. Hence, with this proposal, the POYC Scheme would be allowing superior medicines to be taken for free. It would also make the Scheme more sustainable as it would reduce the out of stock problem, be more cost-effective for the Government, reduce wastage and abuse. Th e Government would thus be saving on costs and would be in a better position to widen the National Formulary with more recent and advanced medications (Borg, 2009). At the moment, this is not possible due to financial constraints. The POYC Scheme affected the daily running of the community pharmacies. Due to the increased work load, some pharmacy owners had to employ further staff. The owners had to purchase a computer and a printer for labels to be issued with every dispensed prescription. They also had to apply for internet service at the pharmacy. Also, some pharmacies had to make the necessary arrangements to increase shelving space to accommodate the weekly delivery of medicines from the POYC Department. Some pharmacies even needed to install another air-conditioning unit. Admittedly, the Government subsidized these expenses to a maximum capital expenditure of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬6,990 (Lm 3,000). After the Memorandum of Understanding was signed, negotiations were held and the amount was capped at à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬9,000. According to an article on the The Malta Business Weekly that was published in November 2009, only the pharmacists who own the pharmacy are happy with this new system. The employed pharmacists have had their work load doubled, if not trebled. Hence, they do not give their patients the service that they used to give before the implementation of the Scheme (Attard, 2009). 1.6.3 The Memorandum of Understanding The very first document on the POYC Scheme was submitted to the Government by the Malta Chamber of Pharmacis

Morals :: Religion, Ethics

Who’s to Blame One night, a few years ago, I was watching television with two of my younger brothers. As I flipped through the stations I could not help but notice that on every channel was an interview of our President, Bill Clinton. The discussion was about President Clinton’s involvement with another women. They questioned him if he had â€Å"oral sex† or â€Å"committed adultery† with Monica Lewinsky, a White House intern. Neither of my brothers commented at the time on what they saw or heard but I just started to imagine what could be running through their heads. â€Å"Well if the President can, why can’t I cheat and lie?†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This, just one of many, is an example of how a child’s morals may be misguided. A young child may be looking at the wrong person or people as role models. If the situation rose in which a kid has the chance to cheat on a test will he? Would that child realize what he is doing wrong when people like the president are committing acts that may give that child the wrong impression on what is the right thing to do? These are just some questions that may be brought up on the topic that schools are teaching children bad morals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people say that schools are not to blame for children holding bad morals. Some may ask, â€Å"Is it the schools responsibility to teach children good morals or is it the parents job?† Some parents are â€Å"too easy† on their children. In today’s world most parents defend their children rather than punish them. For example, a child is caught doing drugs or alcohol, and instead of the kid receiving a punishment from the police, his parents hire a lawyer and find loop holes in the system to â€Å"get the kid out† without a punishment. This proves to kids that although they did something wrong they can get out of it so it’s no big deal, bad morals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another problem that rises is that in today’s schools teachers can not use any type of a faith or religion as a guideline for morals. Today’s laws prohibit teachers from teaching religion in public schools. Teachers are also told not to involve personal feelings in their teaching. It is very difficult for teachers to teach about morals without involving what they feel is the â€Å"correct way to act.† Some parents ask, â€Å"who are they to say what is right way for my child?

Southwest Airlines Essay -- essays research papers fc

I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Current Situation Following the Deregulation in 1978, a competitive price war ensued among the airline industry as a direct result of the new freedom for airlines to set their own fares as well as route entry and exits. This gave rise to the operating structure of the airlines as it exists today, consisting of the point-to-point system and the hub and spoke system. With this came the change of focus for major airlines to non-stop, cross-country routes in densely populated cities, which, in a regulated environment, would be profitable. This resulted in the obvious outcome of increased competition, thus lowering the average industry prices for non-stop cross country routes which were profitable. This caused operating costs to increase, narrowing the profit margins. During the mid 80’s, acquisition led to eight airlines capturing a disproportionate share of domestic traffic. Due to a recession and increasing fuel prices in the 90’s, bankruptcy and collapse were common to many carriers. As a direct result, new airlines were formed, and now position themselves as low fare, no frill airlines. As a culture, American consumers seem to follow one obvious trend; the need and desire for maximum safety. This trend has seen a rapid rise in the wake of 9/11, and seems to show no sign of a decline. This can be further observed in the form of advanced airport/airline security measures and regulations. In accordance with this, Southwest has always prided themselves on being the safest airline in the industry, adapting to the rapidly changing times. This has helped them soar over competition. A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Industry 1. Industry Defined and Total Volume   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Southwest exists and operates within the air travel industry in the United States; an industry which has traditionally been based on a point-to-point flight system. However, this industry has been redefined, evolving into a hub-and-spoke system which all airlines have adopted; all except Southwest. Hub-and-spoke flights, called feeder flights, are defined by long-haul, layover flights where consumers stop at a central hub city and can then either continue the flight on the same plane, or transfer onto a different plane flown by the same carrier. The point-to-point system, deployed by Southwest, is non-stop flights, called shuttle flights. Th... ...profit while other airlines dive into the red.† www.post-gazette.com/pg/05020/445078.stm. January 2, 2005. mars.acent.wnec.edu/~achelte/Theresa.htm. Maynard, Micheline. â€Å"Southwest Losing Its Immunity to Labor Conflicts of Airlines.† The New York Times. July 4, 2002. (C1). Okada, Bryon. â€Å"Airline: Wright law still wrong on long-haul flights.† Knight Ridder Tribune News. February 18, 2005. (1-3). â€Å"Sail the Ocean Blue with the Airline Cast and Crew; Customers Can Take a Cruise with their Favorite ‘AIRLINE’ Characters.† PRNewswire, February 14, 2005. Serwer, Andy. â€Å"Southwest Airlines: The hottest Hottest Thing in the Sky.† Fortune: February 23, 2004. â€Å"Southwest Airlines Expands Nonstop Flights Between Houston Hobby and Los Angeles International.† CNNMoney, February 3, 2005. Southwest Airlines Co. http://www.southwest.com. 2005. â€Å"Southwest Airlines Sends Hottest Fares Directly to customers’ Computer Desktops† PRNewswire-FirstCall via COMTEX, February 28, 2005. Training & Development. â€Å"Southwest Airlines charts a high-performance flight.† Alexandria: June 1995. Issue 6. (Vol 49-39). Yahoo! Finance. http://finance.yahoo.com/. 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚